Register      Login
Sexual Health Sexual Health Society
Publishing on sexual health from the widest perspective
REVIEW (Open Access)

Priorities in the implementation of partner services for HIV/STIs in high-income nations: a narrative review of evidence and recommendations

Matthew R. Golden A , Jo Gibbs B , Charlotte Woodward https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6244-7359 B * and Claudia S. Estcourt C
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations

A Center for AIDS and STD, University of Washington, and Public Health – Seattle & King County, Seattle, WA, USA.

B Centre for Population Research in Sexual Health & HIV, Institute for Global Health, University College London, London, UK.

C School of Health & Life Science, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow, UK.


Handling Editor: Jason Ong

Sexual Health - https://doi.org/10.1071/SH22060
Submitted: 11 April 2022  Accepted: 30 June 2022   Published online: 16 August 2022

© 2022 The Author(s) (or their employer(s)). Published by CSIRO Publishing. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND)

Abstract

Partner notification (PN) remains a crucial prevention tool to reduce sexually transmitted infection (STI) transmission and prevent STI-related morbidity. Although there have been a variety of different approaches taken to facilitate the notification, testing and management of sexual contacts of STIs and HIV, there is an increasing acknowledgement that these interventions are unscalable and have relatively little impact on disease transmission. At the same time, an expanding body of evidence supports a shift in the emphasis of STI outreach-related work from an exclusive focus on PN to an approach that incorporates epidemiologic data collection, case management, and PN, an approach that is sometimes called partner services (PS). In this review, we appraise the current evidence base for different PN interventions for STIs in high-income nations, make recommendations for best practices, present a schema for how public health programs might prioritise PS for different programs, and identify priority research questions related to PN.

Keywords: contact tracing, HIV/AIDS, partner notification, STIs.


References

[1]  Althaus CL, Turner KME, Mercer CH, Auguste P, Roberts TE, Bell G, Herzog SA, Cassell JA, Edmunds WJ, White PJ, Ward H, Low N. Effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of traditional and new partner notification technologies for curable sexually transmitted infections: observational study, systematic reviews and mathematical modelling. Health Technol Assess 2014; 18 1–100.
Effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of traditional and new partner notification technologies for curable sexually transmitted infections: observational study, systematic reviews and mathematical modelling.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[2]  Golden M, Faxelid E, Low N. Partner notification for sexually transmitted infections including HIV infection: an evidence-based assessment. In: Holmes KK, editor. Sexually transmitted diseases. New York, NY: McGraw Hill; 2008. pp. 965–83.

[3]  Alam N, Chamot E, Vermund SH, Streatfield K, Kristensen S. Partner notification for sexually transmitted infections in developing countries: a systematic review. BMC Public Health 2010; 10 19
Partner notification for sexually transmitted infections in developing countries: a systematic review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[4]  Cherutich P, Golden MR, Wamuti B, Richardson BA, Asbjornsdottir KH, Otieno FA, Ng’ang’a A, Mutiti PM, Macharia P, Sambai B, Dunbar M, Bukusi D, Farquhar C, aPS Study Group Assisted partner services for HIV in Kenya: a cluster randomised controlled trial. Lancet HIV 2017; 4 e74–82.
Assisted partner services for HIV in Kenya: a cluster randomised controlled trial.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[5]  Myers RS, Feldacker C, Cesar F, Paredes Z, Augusto G, Muluana C, Citao S, Mboa-Ferrao C, Karajeanes E, Golden MR. Acceptability and effectiveness of assisted human immunodeficiency virus partner services in mozambique: results from a pilot program in a public, urban clinic. Sex Transm Dis 2016; 43 690–5.
Acceptability and effectiveness of assisted human immunodeficiency virus partner services in mozambique: results from a pilot program in a public, urban clinic.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[6]  Rosenberg NE, Mtande TK, Saidi F, Stanley C, Jere E, Paile L, Kumwenda K, Mofolo I, Ng’ambi W, Miller WC, Hoffman I, Hosseinipour M. Recruiting male partners for couple HIV testing and counselling in Malawi’s option B+ programme: an unblinded randomised controlled trial. Lancet HIV 2015; 2 e483–91.
Recruiting male partners for couple HIV testing and counselling in Malawi’s option B+ programme: an unblinded randomised controlled trial.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[7]  Brown LB, Miller WC, Kamanga G, Nyirenda N, Mmodzi P, Pettifor A, Dominik RC, Kaufman JS, Mapanje C, Martinson F, Cohen MS, Hoffman IF. HIV partner notification is effective and feasible in sub-Saharan Africa: opportunities for HIV treatment and prevention. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2011; 56 437–42.
HIV partner notification is effective and feasible in sub-Saharan Africa: opportunities for HIV treatment and prevention.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[8]  Katz BP, Danos CS, Quinn TS, Caine V, Jones RB. Efficiency and cost-effectiveness of field follow-up for patients with Chlamydia trachomatis infection in a sexually transmitted diseases clinic. Sex Transm Dis 1988; 15 11–6.
Efficiency and cost-effectiveness of field follow-up for patients with Chlamydia trachomatis infection in a sexually transmitted diseases clinic.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[9]  Cleveland JQ. A cost-effective study of alternative methods for Gonorrhea contact referral and rescreening. Unpublished manuscript reviewed in: Oxman AD, Scott EAF, Sellors JW, et al. Partner notification for sexually transmitted diseases: an overview of the evidence. Can J Public Health 1994; 85 127–32.

[10]  Landis SE, Schoenbach VJ, Weber DJ, Mittal M, Krishan B, Lewis K, Koch GG. Results of a randomized trial of partner notification in cases of HIV infection in North Carolina. N Engl J Med 1992; 326 101–6.
Results of a randomized trial of partner notification in cases of HIV infection in North Carolina.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[11]  Montesinos L, Frisch LE, Greene BF, Hamilton M. An analysis of and intervention in the sexual transmission of disease. J Appl Behav Anal 1990; 23 275–84.
An analysis of and intervention in the sexual transmission of disease.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[12]  Woodhouse DE, Potterat JJ, Muth JB, Pratts CI, Rothenberg RB, Fogle JS. A civilian-military partnership to reduce the incidence of gonorrhea. Public Health Rep 1985; 100 61–5.

[13]  Judson FN, Wolf FC. Tracing and treating contacts of gonorrhea patients in a clinic for sexually transmitted diseases. Public Health Rep 1978; 93 460–3.

[14]  Potterat JJ, Rothenberg R. The case-finding effectiveness of self-referral system for gonorrhea: a preliminary report. Am J Public Health 1977; 67 174–6.
The case-finding effectiveness of self-referral system for gonorrhea: a preliminary report.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[15]  Hammar H, Ljungberg L. Factors affecting contact tracing of gonorrhoea. Acta Derm Venereol 1972; 52 233–240.

[16]  Cope AB, Bernstein KT, Matthias J, Rahman M, Diesel JC, Pugsley RA, Schillinger JA, Chew Ng RA, Klingler EJ, Mobley VL, Samoff E, Peterman TA. Effectiveness of Syphilis partner notification after adjusting for treatment dates, 7 jurisdictions. Sex Transm Dis 2022; 49 160–5.
Effectiveness of Syphilis partner notification after adjusting for treatment dates, 7 jurisdictions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[17]  Avoundjian T, Stewart J, Peyton D, Lewis C, Johnson K, Glick SN, Golden MR, Khosropour CM. Integrating human immunodeficiency virus testing into syphilis partner services in mississippi to improve human immunodeficiency virus case finding. Sex Transm Dis 2019; 46 240–5.
Integrating human immunodeficiency virus testing into syphilis partner services in mississippi to improve human immunodeficiency virus case finding.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[18]  Golden MR, Stekler J, Kent JB, Hughes JP, Wood RW. An evaluation of HIV partner counseling and referral services using new disposition codes. Sex Transm Dis 2009; 36 95–101.
An evaluation of HIV partner counseling and referral services using new disposition codes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[19]  Brewer DD. Case-finding effectiveness of partner notification and cluster investigation for sexually transmitted diseases/HIV. Sex Transm Dis 2005; 32 78–83.
Case-finding effectiveness of partner notification and cluster investigation for sexually transmitted diseases/HIV.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[20]  Bull L, Apea V, Wiggins H, Davies S, Saxon C, Hughes A, Curtis H, Sullivan A, on behalf of the members of the British Society for Sexual Health and HIV National Audit Group BASHH 2018 UK national audit of HIV partner notification. Int J STD AIDS 2021; 32 872–7.
BASHH 2018 UK national audit of HIV partner notification.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[21]  Golden MR, AugsJoost B, Bender M, Brady KA, Collins LS, Dombrowski JD, Ealey J, Garcia C, George D, Gilliard B, Harris T, Johnson C, Khosropour CM, Rumanes SF, Surita K, Tabidze I, Udeagu CN, Walker-Baban C, Cramer NO. The organization, content, and case-finding effectiveness of HIV assisted partner services in high HIV morbidity areas of the U.S. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2022; 89 498–504.
The organization, content, and case-finding effectiveness of HIV assisted partner services in high HIV morbidity areas of the U.S.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[22]  Rayment M, Curtis H, Carne C, McClean H, Bell G, Estcourt C, Roberts J, Wilkins E, Estreich S, Morris G, Phattey J, Sullivan AK, members of the British Society for Sexual Health and HIV National Audit Group, and the British HIV Association Audit and Standards Subcommittee An effective strategy to diagnose HIV infection: findings from a national audit of HIV partner notification outcomes in sexual health and infectious disease clinics in the UK. Sex Transm Infect 2017; 93 94–9.
An effective strategy to diagnose HIV infection: findings from a national audit of HIV partner notification outcomes in sexual health and infectious disease clinics in the UK.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[23]  Golden MR, Hogben M, Potterat JJ, Handsfield HH. HIV partner notification in the United States: a national survey of program coverage and outcomes. Sex Transm Dis 2004; 31 709–12.
HIV partner notification in the United States: a national survey of program coverage and outcomes.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[24]  Kissinger P, Schmidt N, Mohammed H, Leichliter JS, Gift TL, Meadors B, Sanders C, Farley TA. Patient-delivered partner treatment for Trichomonas vaginalis infection: a randomized controlled trial. Sex Transm Dis 2006; 33 445–50.
Patient-delivered partner treatment for Trichomonas vaginalis infection: a randomized controlled trial.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[25]  Golden MR, Whittington WLH, Handsfield HH, Hughes JP, Stamm WE, Hogben M, Clark A, Malinski C, Helmers JRL, Thomas KK, Holmes KK. Effect of expedited treatment of sex partners on recurrent or persistent gonorrhea or chlamydial infection. N Engl J Med 2005; 352 676–85.
Effect of expedited treatment of sex partners on recurrent or persistent gonorrhea or chlamydial infection.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[26]  Kissinger P, Mohammed H, Richardson-Alston G, Leichliter JS, Taylor SN, Martin DH, Farley TA. Patient-delivered partner treatment for male urethritis: a randomized, controlled trial. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 41 623–9.
Patient-delivered partner treatment for male urethritis: a randomized, controlled trial.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[27]  Schillinger JA, Kissinger P, Calvet H, Whittington WLH, Ransom RL, Sternberg MR, Berman SM, Kent CK, Martin DH, Oh MK, Handsfield HH, Bolan G, Markowitz LE, Fortenberry JD. Patient-delivered partner treatment with azithromycin to prevent repeated Chlamydia trachomatis infection among women: a randomized, controlled trial. Sex Transm Dis 2003; 30 49–56.
Patient-delivered partner treatment with azithromycin to prevent repeated Chlamydia trachomatis infection among women: a randomized, controlled trial.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[28]  Ferreira A, Young T, Mathews C, Zunza M, Low N. Strategies for partner notification for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013; 2013 CD002843
Strategies for partner notification for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[29]  Golden MR, Kerani RP, Stenger M, Hughes JP, Aubin M, Malinski C, Holmes KK. Uptake and population-level impact of expedited partner therapy (EPT) on Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae: The Washington state community-level randomized trial of EPT. PLoS Med 2015; 12 e1001777
Uptake and population-level impact of expedited partner therapy (EPT) on Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae: The Washington state community-level randomized trial of EPT.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[30]  Schillinger JA, Gorwitz R, Rietmeijer C, Golden MR. The expedited partner therapy continuum: a conceptual framework to guide programmatic efforts to increase partner treatment. Sex Transm Dis 2016; 43 S63–75.
The expedited partner therapy continuum: a conceptual framework to guide programmatic efforts to increase partner treatment.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[31]  Estcourt CS, Sutcliffe LJ, Copas A, Mercer CH, Roberts TE, Jackson LJ, Symonds M, Tickle L, Muniina P, Rait G, Johnson AM, Aderogba K, Creighton S, Cassell JA. Developing and testing accelerated partner therapy for partner notification for people with genital Chlamydia trachomatis diagnosed in primary care: a pilot randomised controlled trial. Sex Transm Infect 2015; 91 548–54.
Developing and testing accelerated partner therapy for partner notification for people with genital Chlamydia trachomatis diagnosed in primary care: a pilot randomised controlled trial.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[32]  Estcourt C, Sutcliffe L, Cassell J, Mercer CH, Copas A, James L, Low N, Horner P, Clarke M, Symonds M, Roberts T, Tsourapas A, Johnson AM. Can we improve partner notification rates through expedited partner therapy in the UK? Findings from an exploratory trial of Accelerated Partner Therapy (APT). Sex Transm Infect 2012; 88 21–6.
Can we improve partner notification rates through expedited partner therapy in the UK? Findings from an exploratory trial of Accelerated Partner Therapy (APT).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[33]  Althaus CL, Mercer CH, Cassell JA, Estcourt CS, Low N. The cost-effectiveness of 333 accelerated partner therapy (APT) compared to standard contact tracing for people with 334 chlamydia: an economic evaluation based on the LUSTRUM population-based chlamydia 335 transmission model. Medrxiv 2021;

[34]  Estcourt CS, Copas A, Low N, Mapp F, Stirrup O, Cassell JA. Accelerated partner therapy contact tracing for people with chlamydia: the LUSTRUM cluster cross-over randomised controlled trial. Medrxiv 2021;
Accelerated partner therapy contact tracing for people with chlamydia: the LUSTRUM cluster cross-over randomised controlled trial.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[35]  Williams EV, Ogwulu OCB, Estcourt CS, Howarth AR, Copas A, Low N, Althaus C, Mapp F, Woode OM, Symonds M, Roberts TE. The cost-effectiveness of accelerated partner therapy (APT) compared to standard contact tracing for people with chlamydia: an economic evaluation based on the LUSTRUM population-based chlamydia transmission model. Medrxiv 2021;
The cost-effectiveness of accelerated partner therapy (APT) compared to standard contact tracing for people with chlamydia: an economic evaluation based on the LUSTRUM population-based chlamydia transmission model.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[36]  Woodward C, Lloyd KC, Bloch S, Saunders J, Estcourt C, Gibbs J. O12 The use of digital partner notification in sexually transmitted infections (STIs) including HIV: a scoping review. Sex Transm Infect 2022; 98 A6–7.

[37]  Balán IC, Rios JL, Lentz C, Arumugam S, Dolezal C, Kutner B, Rael CT, Ying AW, Macar OU, Sia SK. Acceptability and use of a dual HIV/Syphilis rapid test and accompanying smartphone app to facilitate self- and partner-testing among cisgender men and transgender women who have sex with men. AIDS Behav 2022; 26 35–46.
Acceptability and use of a dual HIV/Syphilis rapid test and accompanying smartphone app to facilitate self- and partner-testing among cisgender men and transgender women who have sex with men.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[38]  Parkes-Ratanshi R, Mbazira Kimeze J, Nakku-Joloba E, Hamill MM, Namawejje M, Kiragga A, Kayogoza Byamugisha J, Rompalo A, Gaydos C, Manabe YC. Low male partner attendance after syphilis screening in pregnant women leads to worse birth outcomes: the Syphilis Treatment of Partners (STOP) randomised control trial. Sex Health 2020; 17 214–22.
Low male partner attendance after syphilis screening in pregnant women leads to worse birth outcomes: the Syphilis Treatment of Partners (STOP) randomised control trial.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[39]  Clark JL, Segura ER, Oldenburg CE, Salvatierra HJ, Rios J, Perez-Brumer AG, Gonzales P, Sheoran B, Sanchez J, Lama JR. Traditional and web-based technologies to improve partner notification following syphilis diagnosis among men who have sex with men in Lima, Peru: pilot randomized controlled trial. J Med Internet Res 2018; 20 e232
Traditional and web-based technologies to improve partner notification following syphilis diagnosis among men who have sex with men in Lima, Peru: pilot randomized controlled trial.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[40]  Götz HM, van Rooijen MS, Vriens P, Op de Coul E, Hamers M, Heijman T, van den Heuvel F, Koekenbier R, van Leeuwen AP, Voeten HA. Initial evaluation of use of an online partner notification tool for STI, called ‘suggest a test’: a cross sectional pilot study. Sex Transm Infect 2014; 90 195–200.
Initial evaluation of use of an online partner notification tool for STI, called ‘suggest a test’: a cross sectional pilot study.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[41]  Bilardi JE, Fairley CK, Hopkins CA, Hocking JS, Sze JK, Chen MY. Let them know: evaluation of an online partner notification service for chlamydia that offers E-mail and SMS messaging. Sex Transm Dis 2010; 37 563–5.
Let them know: evaluation of an online partner notification service for chlamydia that offers E-mail and SMS messaging.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[42]  Mobley V, Cope A, Dzialowy N, Maxwell J, Foust E, Samoff E. A comparison of syphilis partner notification outcomes by reported use of internet-based apps to meet sex partners in North Carolina, 2013–2016. Sex Transm Dis 2018; 45 823–8.
A comparison of syphilis partner notification outcomes by reported use of internet-based apps to meet sex partners in North Carolina, 2013–2016.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[43]  Pennise M, Inscho R, Herpin K, Owens J, Bedard BA, Weimer AC, Kennedy BS, Younge M. Using smartphone apps in STD interviews to find sexual partners. Public Health Rep 2015; 130 245–52.

[44]  Hunter P, Oyervides O, Grande KM, Prater D, Vann V, Reitl I, Biedrzycki PA. Facebook-augmented partner notification in a cluster of syphilis cases in Milwaukee. Public Health Rep 2014; 129 43–9.

[45]  Kerani RP, Fleming M, DeYoung B, Golden MR. A randomized, controlled trial of inSPOT and patient-delivered partner therapy for gonorrhea and chlamydial infection among men who have sex with men. Sex Transm Dis 2011; 38 941–6.
A randomized, controlled trial of inSPOT and patient-delivered partner therapy for gonorrhea and chlamydial infection among men who have sex with men.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[46]  Ehlman DC, Jackson M, Saenz G, Novak DS, Kachur R, Heath JT, Furness BW. Evaluation of an innovative internet-based partner notification program for early syphilis case management, Washington, DC, January 2007–June 2008. Sex Transm Dis 2010; 37 478–85.
Evaluation of an innovative internet-based partner notification program for early syphilis case management, Washington, DC, January 2007–June 2008.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[47]  Htaik K, Fairley CK, Bilardi JE, Chow EPF, Ong JJ, Chen MY. Evaluation of the online partner messaging service for sexually transmitted infections let them know. Sex Transm Dis 2022; 49 12–4.
Evaluation of the online partner messaging service for sexually transmitted infections let them know.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[48]  Wang AL, Peng R-R, Tucker JD, Chakraborty H, Cohen MS, Chen X-S. Optimizing partner notification programs for men who have sex with men: factorial survey results from south China. PLoS One 2016; 11 e0157749
Optimizing partner notification programs for men who have sex with men: factorial survey results from south China.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[49]  Clark JL, Segura ER, Perez-Brumer AG, Reisner SL, Peinado J, Salvatierra HJ, Sanchez J, Lama JR. Potential impact and acceptability of Internet partner notification for men who have sex with men and transgender women recently diagnosed as having sexually transmitted disease in Lima, Peru. Sex Transm Dis 2014; 41 43–5.
Potential impact and acceptability of Internet partner notification for men who have sex with men and transgender women recently diagnosed as having sexually transmitted disease in Lima, Peru.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[50]  Golden MR, Whittington WLH, Handsfield HH, Malinski C, Clark A, Hughes JP, Gorbach PM, Holmes KK. Partner management for gonococcal and chlamydial infection: expansion of public health services to the private sector and expedited sex partner treatment through a partnership with commercial pharmacies. Sex Transm Dis 2001; 28 658–65.
Partner management for gonococcal and chlamydial infection: expansion of public health services to the private sector and expedited sex partner treatment through a partnership with commercial pharmacies.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[51]  Reed JL, Huppert JS, Gillespie GL, Taylor RG, Holland CK, Alessandrini EA, Kahn JA. Adolescent patient preferences surrounding partner notification and treatment for sexually transmitted infections. Acad Emerg Med 2015; 22 61–6.
Adolescent patient preferences surrounding partner notification and treatment for sexually transmitted infections.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[52]  Balfe M, Brugha R, O’Donovan D, O’Connell E, Vaughan D. Young women’s decisions to accept chlamydia screening: influences of stigma and doctor-patient interactions. BMC Public Health 2010; 10 425
Young women’s decisions to accept chlamydia screening: influences of stigma and doctor-patient interactions.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[53]  Sutcliffe L, Brook MG, Chapman JL, Cassell JM, Estcourt CS. Is accelerated partner therapy a feasible and acceptable strategy for rapid partner notification in the UK?: a qualitative study of genitourinary medicine clinic attenders. Int J STD AIDS 2009; 20 603–6.
Is accelerated partner therapy a feasible and acceptable strategy for rapid partner notification in the UK?: a qualitative study of genitourinary medicine clinic attenders.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[54]  Gkatzidou V, Hone K, Sutcliffe L, Gibbs J, Sadiq ST, Szczepura A, Sonnenberg P, Estcourt C. User interface design for mobile-based sexual health interventions for young people: design recommendations from a qualitative study on an online Chlamydia clinical care pathway. BMC Med Inform Decis Mak 2015; 15 72
User interface design for mobile-based sexual health interventions for young people: design recommendations from a qualitative study on an online Chlamydia clinical care pathway.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[55]  Hopkins CA, Temple-Smith MJ, Fairley CK, Pavlin NL, Tomnay JE, Parker RM, Bowden FJ, Russell DB, Hocking JS, Chen MY. Telling partners about chlamydia: how acceptable are the new technologies? BMC Infect Dis 2010; 10 58
Telling partners about chlamydia: how acceptable are the new technologies?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[56]  Cope AB, Seña AC, Eagle C, Pol A, Rahman M, Peterman TA. Assessing patient opinions about electronic messaging for gonorrhea and chlamydia result notification and partner services, Durham, North Carolina. Sex Transm Dis 2019; 46 625–8.
Assessing patient opinions about electronic messaging for gonorrhea and chlamydia result notification and partner services, Durham, North Carolina.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[57]  Iturrieta-Guaita NG, Temple-Smith MJ, Tomnay J. Using electronic communication technologies for improving syphilis partner notification in Chile: healthcare providers’ perspectives – a qualitative case study. Sex Health 2019; 16 377–82.
Using electronic communication technologies for improving syphilis partner notification in Chile: healthcare providers’ perspectives – a qualitative case study.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[58]  Estcourt CS, Gibbs J, Sutcliffe LJ, Gkatzidou V, Tickle L, Hone K, Aicken C, Lowndes CM, Harding-Esch EM, Eaton S, Oakeshott P, Szczepura A, Ashcroft RE, Copas A, Nettleship A, Sadiq ST, Sonnenberg P. The eSexual Health Clinic system for management, prevention, and control of sexually transmitted infections: exploratory studies in people testing for Chlamydia trachomatis. Lancet Public Health 2017; 2 e182–90.
The eSexual Health Clinic system for management, prevention, and control of sexually transmitted infections: exploratory studies in people testing for Chlamydia trachomatis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[59]  Qian S, Foster R, Bourne C, Vickers T, McIver R, McNulty A. Neisseria gonorrhoeae positivity in clients presenting as asymptomatic contacts of gonorrhoea at a sexual health centre. Sex Health 2020; 17 187–91.
Neisseria gonorrhoeae positivity in clients presenting as asymptomatic contacts of gonorrhoea at a sexual health centre.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[60]  Pearce E, Chan DJ, Smith DE. Empiric antimicrobial treatment for asymptomatic sexual contacts of sexually transmitted infection in the era of antimicrobial resistance: time to rethink? Int J STD AIDS 2019; 30 137–9.
Empiric antimicrobial treatment for asymptomatic sexual contacts of sexually transmitted infection in the era of antimicrobial resistance: time to rethink?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[61]  Golden MR, Katz DA, Dombrowski JC. Modernizing field services for human immunodeficiency virus and sexually transmitted infections in the United States. Sex Transm Dis 2017; 44 599–607.
Modernizing field services for human immunodeficiency virus and sexually transmitted infections in the United States.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[62]  Katz DA, Dombrowski JC, Kerani RP, Aubin MR, Kern DA, Heal DD, Bell TR, Golden MR. Integrating HIV testing as an outcome of STD partner services for men who have sex with men. AIDS Patient Care STDS 2016; 30 208–14.
Integrating HIV testing as an outcome of STD partner services for men who have sex with men.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[63]  Samoff E, Cope AB, Maxwell J, Thomas F, Mobley VL. The number of interviews needed to yield new syphilis and human immunodeficiency virus cases among partners of people diagnosed with syphilis, North Carolina, 2015. Sex Transm Dis 2017; 44 451–6.
The number of interviews needed to yield new syphilis and human immunodeficiency virus cases among partners of people diagnosed with syphilis, North Carolina, 2015.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[64]  Howren MB, Francis SL, Polgreen LA, Shafer C, Hoth A, Ohl ME. Predictors of HIV preexposure prophylaxis initiation among public health clients in rural and small urban areas in Iowa. Public Health Rep 2021; 136 172–82.
Predictors of HIV preexposure prophylaxis initiation among public health clients in rural and small urban areas in Iowa.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[65]  Teixeira da Silva D, Bouris A, Ramachandran A, Blocker O, Davis B, Harris J, Pyra M, Rusie LK, Brewer R, Pagkas-Bather J, Hotton A, Ridgway JP, McNulty M, Bhatia R, Schneider JA. Embedding a Linkage to preexposure prophylaxis care intervention in social network strategy and partner notification services: results from a pilot randomized controlled trial. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2021; 86 191–9.
Embedding a Linkage to preexposure prophylaxis care intervention in social network strategy and partner notification services: results from a pilot randomized controlled trial.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[66]  Katz DA, Dombrowski JC, Bell T, Golden MR. STD partner services to monitor and promote PrEP use among men who have sex with men. Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections 2017; Seattle, WA; 2017. Available at https://www.natap.org/2017/CROI/croi_188.htm

[67]  Norkin SK, Benson S, Civitarese AM, Reich A, Chomsky Albright M, Convery C, Kasarskis IM, Cassidy-Stewart H, Howe K, Wang X, Golden MR, Khosropour CM, Glick SN, Kerani RP. Inadequate engagement in HIV care among people with HIV newly diagnosed with a sexually transmitted disease: a multijurisdictional analysis. Sex Transm Dis 2021; 48 601–5.
Inadequate engagement in HIV care among people with HIV newly diagnosed with a sexually transmitted disease: a multijurisdictional analysis.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[68]  Digre P, Avoundjian T, Johnson K, Peyton D, Lewis C, Barnabas RV, Golden MR, Khosropour CM. Barriers, facilitators, and cost of integrating HIV-related activities into sexually transmitted disease partner services in Jackson, Mississippi. Sex Transm Dis 2021; 48 145–51.
Barriers, facilitators, and cost of integrating HIV-related activities into sexually transmitted disease partner services in Jackson, Mississippi.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[69]  Silverman RA, Katz DA, Levin C, Bell TR, Spellman D, St John L, Manley Rodriguez E, Golden MR, Barnabas RV. Sexually transmitted disease partner services costs, other resources, and strategies across jurisdictions to address unique epidemic characteristics and increased incidence. Sex Transm Dis 2019; 46 493–501.
Sexually transmitted disease partner services costs, other resources, and strategies across jurisdictions to address unique epidemic characteristics and increased incidence.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[70]  Gibbs J, Solomon D, Jackson L, Mullick S, Burns F, Shahmanesh M. Measuring and evaluating sexual health in the era of digital health: challenges and opportunities. Sexual Health 2022;
Measuring and evaluating sexual health in the era of digital health: challenges and opportunities.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[71]  Trelle S, Shang A, Nartey L, Cassell JA, Low N. Improved effectiveness of partner notification for patients with sexually transmitted infections: systematic review. BMJ 2007; 334 354
Improved effectiveness of partner notification for patients with sexually transmitted infections: systematic review.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |

[72]  Wayal S, Estcourt CS, Mercer CH, Saunders J, Low N, McKinnon T, Symonds M, Cassell JA. Optimising partner notification outcomes for bacterial sexually transmitted infections: a deliberative process and consensus, United Kingdom, 2019. Euro Surveill 2022; 27 2001895
Optimising partner notification outcomes for bacterial sexually transmitted infections: a deliberative process and consensus, United Kingdom, 2019.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |